Which revolution resulted in independence from portugal

For the Right, he stalked the political scene like a menacing ghost. Upon his death in , no one could deny his impact on the history of Brazil, and on the Brazilian Left in particular. The Military Coup in Brazil. The coup that took place in Brazil on March 31, can be understood as a typical Cold War event. Supported by civilians, the action was carried out by the armed forces. Its origins hark back to the failed military revolt, headed by the Brazilian Communist Party PCB , in November of , stirring up strong anticommunist sentiments.

The Estado Novo coup, which occurred two years later, was supported by the army war and navy ministers. At the end of the Second World War, officers who had taken part in the struggle against Nazism in Italy returned to Brazil and overthrew the dictatorial Vargas regime, who nonetheless returned to power through the presidential elections.

During the s, the military came to be divided into pro-American and nationalist factions. The coup was frustrated by the resistance of the governor of the state of Rio Grande do Sul. Yet the Goulart administration was marked by instability, in the midst of intense social struggles and by a sharp economic crisis.

The outcome of this drama began to take shape in March , when the government took a leftwards turn. On March 31, military forces carried out the infamous coup. The Goulart administration collapsed. Social movements were left waiting for orders to resist that never came. Popular Revolts in the Empire of Brazil. Scholars have long studied the rebellious movements that rattled Brazil after its independence and during the so-called Regency period.

The scholarship has mainly focused on understanding the political and economic elites who led the revolts by joining or fighting the rebels, or whose interests were at stake. These women and men took up arms and, occasionally, led the rebellions, notably during the First Reign and the Regency. Historical accounts of such revolts are limited, however, and those that speak to upheavals that occurred from the s on are even scarcer.

Although one should never mistake the letter of the law for its actual enforcement, its existence should also not be dismissed. Regarding the role played by popular revolts in 19th century Brazil, one must go beyond the boundaries set by a traditional historiography to understand how the experience of protesting was directly related to the process of state building, and how the lower strata of society learned to fight for their demands as citizens of a representative constitutional monarchy.

The Revolt of the Enteados and Tailors in Bahia, The Sabinada Rebellion. It was a separatist rebellion organized by men of federalist and republican ideals who opposed the conservative turn of the Regency government, which ruled Brazil from the abdication of Dom Pedro I until , when Dom Pedro II—three and a half years before the legal age of 18—was crowned Emperor.

The Sabinada, however, was more than a separatist movement organized by a rogue political group. It brought together a myriad of social tensions that had been brewing in Salvador since colonial times. Members of the military, who had seen their standing in Brazilian society rapidly deteriorate since the war of independence, found in the Sabinada an opportunity to reclaim a leading position. The free poor nurtured similar political hopes and, more importantly, rebelled against a highly unequal economic system that left them in dire straits, facing the constant threat of homelessness and starvation.

The slaves did not hesitate to jump into the fray, running away from their masters to join the rebel forces and forcing its leaders to break their initial promise that slavery would not be jeopardized.

People of color—slave and free—embraced the Sabinada to exterminate some blatant racial inequality existing in 19th-century Bahia. Brazilians of all colors and social ranks took advantage of the situation to carry out vengeance against foreign nationals, especially the Portuguese, who controlled retail commerce in Salvador.

Rebel leaders had to deal with all these different demands at once, and they did so with much improvisation and unexpected turns. Simultaneously, they had to fend off a brutal repression from loyalist authorities and combatants.

There, they received reinforcements from the National Guard and Army battalions from other provinces. Salvador was under siege for most of the rebellion. The rebels had a hard time acquiring the necessary means to wage war and nearly starved to death. When the loyalists finally attacked, they made sure to shed as much rebel blood as possible to make an example. The loyalists killed indiscriminately, burned buildings, suspended civil rights, executed prisoners, and deported rebels.

The Treaty of Tordesillas was one of the most decisive events in all Brazilian history, since it alone determined that a portion of South America would be settled by Portugal instead of Spain. Although it is debated whether previous Portuguese explorers had already been in Brazil, this date is widely and politically accepted as the day of the discovery of Brazil by Europeans. Between and , relatively few Portuguese expeditions came to the new land to chart the coast and obtain brazilwood, which the Portuguese had identified as a valuable commodity upon arrival and from where Brazil gets its name.

In Europe, this wood was used to produce a valuable dye to give color to luxury textiles. To extract brazilwood from the tropical rainforest, the Portuguese and other Europeans relied on the work of the natives, who initially labored in exchange for European goods like mirrors, scissors, knives, and axes. In this early stage of the colonization of Brazil and also later, the Portuguese frequently relied on the help of Europeans who lived together with the indigenous peoples and knew their languages and culture.

Colonial Brazil: Portuguese map by Lopo Homem c. Over time, the Portuguese realized that some European countries, especially France, were also sending excursions to the land to extract brazilwood. Worried about foreign incursions and hoping to find mineral riches, the Portuguese crown decided to send large missions to take possession of the land and combat the French.

The Portuguese crown devised a system to effectively occupy Brazil without paying the costs. Through the hereditary Captaincies system, Brazil was divided into strips of land that were donated to Portuguese noblemen, who were in turn responsible for the occupation and administration of the land and answered to the king. The captaincies gradually reverted to the Crown and became provinces and eventually states of the country.

Starting in the 16th century, sugarcane grown on plantations called engenhos along the northeast coast became the base of Brazilian economy and society, with the use of slaves on large plantations to make sugar for export to Europe.

At first, settlers tried to enslave the natives as labor to work the fields. However, colonists were unable to sustainably enslave Natives, and Portuguese land owners soon imported millions of slaves from Africa. Mortality rates for slaves in sugar and gold enterprises were very high, and there were often not enough females or proper conditions to replenish the slave population.

Still, Africans became a substantial section of Brazilian population, and long before the end of slavery in , they began to merge with the European Brazilian population through interracial marriage. During the first years of the colonial period, attracted by the vast natural resources and untapped land, other European powers tried to establish colonies in several parts of Brazilian territory in defiance of the Treaty of Tordesillas.

Jesuits arrived early and established Sao Paulo, evangelizing the natives. These native allies of the Jesuits assisted the Portuguese in driving out the French. The unsuccessful Dutch intrusion into Brazil was longer-lasting and more troublesome to Portugal. Dutch privateers began by plundering the coast; they sacked Bahia in , and even temporarily captured the capital Salvador.

From to , the Dutch set up more permanently in the northwest and controlled a long stretch of the coast most accessible to Europe, without penetrating the interior. After several years of open warfare, the Dutch withdrew by Little French and Dutch cultural and ethnic influence remained of these failed attempts. The discovery of gold in the early 18th century was met with great enthusiasm by Portugal, which had an economy in disarray following years of wars against Spain and the Netherlands.

A gold rush quickly ensued, with people from other parts of the colony and Portugal flooding the region in the first half of the 18th century. The Napoleonic Wars in Europe, especially the Peninsular War and its resulting treaties, would reshape the political structure of Brazil in the early 19th century from a colony of Portugal to the Kingdom of Brazil. During the first years of Brazilian colonial history, the economic exploitation of the territory was based on brazilwood extraction 16th century , sugar production 16thth centuries , and finally on gold and diamond mining 18th century.

During the first years of Brazilian colonial history, the economic exploitation of the territory was based on brazilwood extraction 16th century , sugar production 16th—18th centuries , and finally gold and diamond mining 18th century. Slaves, especially those brought from Africa, provided most of the working force of the Brazilian export economy after a brief period of Indian slavery. The boom and bust economic cycles were linked to export products.

Gold and diamonds were discovered and mined in southern Brazil through the end of the colonial era. This large tree Caesalpinia echinata has a trunk that yields a prized red dye, and was nearly wiped out as a result of exploitation.

Starting in the 16th centuries, brazilwood became highly valued in Europe and quite difficult to get. A related wood from Asia, sappanwood, was traded in powder form and used as a red dye in the manufacture of luxury textiles, such as velvet, in high demand during the Renaissance. When Portuguese navigators discovered present-day Brazil on April 22, , they immediately saw that brazilwood was extremely abundant along the coast and in its hinterland along the rivers.

In a few years, a hectic and very profitable operation for felling and shipping all the brazilwood logs they could get was established as a crown-granted Portuguese monopoly. The rich commerce that soon followed stimulated other nations to try to harvest and smuggle brazilwood contraband out of Brazil and corsairs to attack loaded Portuguese ships in order to steal their cargo. For example, the unsuccessful attempt in of a French expedition led by Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon, vice-admiral of Brittany and corsair under the King, to establish a colony in present-day Rio de Janeiro France Antarctique was motivated in part by the bounty generated by economic exploitation of brazilwood.

Since the initial attempts to find gold and silver failed, the Portuguese colonists adopted an economy based on the production of agricultural goods to be exported to Europe. Tobacco, cotton and other crops were produced, but sugar became by far the most important Brazilian colonial product until the early 18th century. Initially, the Portuguese attempted to utilize Indian slaves for sugar cultivation, but shifted to the use of black African slave labor.

The period of sugar-based economy — c. The development of the sugar complex occurred over time with a variety of models. The dependencies of the farm included a casa-grande big house where the owner of the farm lived with his family, and the senzala , where the slaves were kept.

Portugal owned several commercial facilities in Western Africa, where slaves were bought from African merchants.

These slaves were then sent by ship to Brazil, chained and in crowded conditions. The idea of using African slaves in colonial farms was also adopted by other European colonial powers in tropical regions of America Spain in Cuba, France in Haiti, the Netherlands in the Dutch Antilles, and England in Jamaica. The Portuguese attempted to severely restrict colonial trade, meaning that Brazil was only allowed to export and import goods from Portugal and other Portuguese colonies.

Brazil exported sugar, tobacco, cotton, and native products and imported from Portugal wine, olive oil, textiles, and luxury goods — the latter imported by Portugal from other European countries. This comprised what is now known as the triangular trade between Europe, Africa and the Americas during the colonial period.

Merchants during the sugar age were crucial to the economic development of the colony as the link between the sugar production areas, coastal Portuguese cities, and Europe. Merchants initially came from many nations, including Germany, Italy, and modern-day Belgium, but Portuguese merchants came to dominate the trade in Brazil.

Even though Brazilian sugar had a reputation for quality, the industry faced a crisis during the 17th and 18th centuries when the Dutch and the French started producing sugar in the Antilles, located much closer to Europe, causing sugar prices to fall.

The discovery of gold was met with great enthusiasm by Portugal, which had an economy in disarray following years of wars against Spain and the Netherlands. The large portion of the Brazilian inland where gold was extracted became known as the Minas Gerais General Mines. Gold mining in this area became the main economic activity of colonial Brazil during the 18th century. The military-led coup returned democracy to Portugal, ending the unpopular Colonial War where thousands of Portuguese soldiers had been conscripted into military service, and replacing the Estado Novo regime and its secret police which repressed elemental civil liberties and political freedoms.

Portugal's new regime pledged itself to end the colonial wars and began negotiations with the African independence movements. By the end of , Portuguese troops had been withdrawn from Portuguese Guinea and the latter had become a UN member state. These events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories mostly from Angola and Mozambique , creating over a million Portuguese refugees — the retornados.

Although the regime's political police, PIDE, killed four people before surrendering, the revolution was unusual in that the revolutionaries did not use direct violence to achieve their goals. Holding red carnations cravos in Portuguese , many people joined revolutionary soldiers on the streets of Lisbon , in apparent joy and audible euphoria.

In the aftermath of the revolution a new constitution was drafted, censorship was formally prohibited, free speech declared, political prisoners were released and the Portuguese overseas territories in Sub-Saharan Africa were immediately given their independence. East Timor was also offered independence, being invaded by neighbouring Indonesia afterwards.

In , the regime was recast and renamed Estado Novo "New State" , and Salazar was named as President of the Council of Ministers until , when he suffered a stroke following a domestic accident.

Under the Estado Novo , Portugal's undemocratic government was tolerated by its NATO partners for its anti-communist nature; this attitude changed dramatically during the mids, under pressure of public opinion and left wing movements rising in Europe [ citation needed ].

There were formal elections but they were rarely contested — with the opposition using the limited political freedoms allowed during the brief election period to openly protest against the regime, withdrawing their candidates before the election so as not to provide the regime with any legitimacy. Immediately after this election, Salazar's government abandoned the practice of popularly electing the president, with that task being given thereafter to the regime-loyal National Assembly.

During Caetano's time in office, his attempts at minor political reform were obstructed by the important Salazarist elements within the regime known as the Bunker. The international context was not favourable to the Portuguese regime. The Cold War was near its peak, and both Western and Eastern-bloc states were supporting the guerrillas in the Portuguese colonies, attempting to bring these under, respectively, American and Soviet influence see Portuguese Colonial War.

The overseas policy of the Portuguese Government and the desire of many colonial residents to remain under Portuguese rule would lead to an abrupt decolonisation, which occurred only after the Carnation Revolution of April and the fall of the regime. Unlike other European colonial powers, Portugal had long-standing and close ties to its African colonies. For the Portuguese ruling regime, the overseas empire was a matter of national interest.

In the view of many Portuguese, a colonial empire was necessary for continued national power and influence [ citation needed ]. In contrast to Britain and France, Portuguese colonial settlers had extensively inter-married and assimilated within the colonies over a period of years.

Despite objections in world forums such as the United Nations , Portugal had long maintained that its African colonies were an integral part of Portugal, and felt obliged to militarily defend them against Communist-inspired armed groups, particularly after India's annexation of Portuguese exclaves Goa , Daman and Diu Portuguese India , in see Indian Invasion of Goa [ citation needed ].

The various conflicts forced the Salazar and subsequent Caetano regimes to spend more of the country's budget on colonial administration and military expenditures, and Portugal soon found itself increasingly isolated from the rest of the world.

Throughout the war period Portugal faced increasing dissent, arms embargoes and other punitive sanctions imposed by most of the international community. For Portuguese society the war was becoming even more unpopular due to its length and financial costs, the worsening of diplomatic relations with other United Nations members, and the role it had always played as a factor of perpetuation of the Estado Novo regime.

It was this escalation that would lead directly to the mutiny of members of the FAP in the Carnation Revolution in - an event that would lead to the independence of the former Portuguese colonies in Africa. Atrocities, such as that at Wiriyamu in Mozambique, undermined the war's popularity and the government's diplomatic position - although some details of the Wiriyamu case remain disputed. After Caetano succeeded to the presidency, colonial war became a major cause of dissent and a focus for anti-government forces in Portuguese society [ citation needed ].

Many left-wing students and anti-war activists were forced to leave the country so they could escape conscription, imprisonment and torture by government forces.

However, between and , there were also three generations of militants of the radical right at the Portuguese universities and schools, guided by a revolutionary nationalism partly influenced by the political sub-culture of European neofascism. The core of these radical students' struggle lay in an uncompromising defense of the Portuguese Empire in the days of the authoritarian regime.

The economy of Portugal and its colonies on the eve of the Carnation Revolution a military coup on April 25, was growing well above the European average [ citation needed ]. Average family purchasing power was rising together with new consumption patterns and trends and this was promoting both investment in new capital equipment and consumption expenditure for durable and nondurable consumer goods [ citation needed ].

The Estado Novo regime economic policy encouraged and created conditions for the formation of large business conglomerates. Those Portuguese conglomerates had a business model with similarities to South Korean chaebols and Japanese keiretsus and zaibatsus [ citation needed ].

In addition, rural areas' populations were committed to agrarianism that was of great importance for a majority of the total population, with many families living exclusively from agriculture or complementing their salaries with farming, husbandry and forestry yields.

Besides that, the colonies were also displaying impressive economic growth and development rates from the s onwards [ citation needed ]. Even during the Portuguese Colonial War — , a counterinsurgency war against independentist guerrilla and terrorism, Portuguese Angola and Portuguese Mozambique colonies at the time had continuous economic growth rates and several sectors of its local economies were booming.

They were internationally notable centres of production of oil, coffee, cotton, cashew, coconut, timber, minerals like diamonds , metals like iron and aluminium , banana, citrus, tea, sisal, beer Cuca and Laurentina were successful beer brands produced locally , cement, fish and other sea products, beef and textiles.

Tourism was also a fast developing activity in Portuguese Africa both by the growing development of and demand for beach resorts and wildlife reserves [ citation needed ].

Labour unions were not allowed and a minimum wage policy was not enforced. However, in a context of an expanding economy, bringing better living conditions for the Portuguese population in the s, the outbreak of the colonial wars in Africa set off significant social changes, among them the rapid incorporation of more and more women into the labour market.

Marcelo Caetano moved on to foster economic growth and some social improvements, such as the awarding of a monthly pension to rural workers who had never had the chance to pay social security. The objectives of Caetano's pension reform were threefold: enhancing equity, reducing fiscal and actuarial imbalance, and achieving more efficiency for the economy as a whole, for example, by establishing contributions which distorted labour markets less, or by allowing the savings generated by pension funds to increase the investments in the economy.

After Salazar's stroke in , Caetano had taken over the office of Prime Minister. His main slogan was "evolution in continuity", suggesting that there would be a reform of the Salazarist system. His so-called "political spring" also called Marcelist Spring - Primavera Marcelista included greater political tolerance and freedom of the press and was regarded as an opportunity by the opposition to gain concessions from the regime.

In , the Estado Novo-controlled nation got indeed a very slight taste of democracy and Caetano allowed the establishment of the first democratic labour union movement since the s. Nevertheless, after the elections of and it was clear that the past practices of political repression would continue against communists, anti-colonialists and other oppositionists.

By the early s, the Portuguese Colonial War continued to rage on, requiring a steadily increasing budget. The Portuguese military was overstretched and there was no political solution or end in sight. While the human losses were relatively small, the war as whole had already entered its second decade. The Portuguese ruling regime of Estado Novo faced criticism from the international community and was becoming increasingly isolated.

The colonial war had a profound impact on Portugal — thousands of young men avoided conscription by emigrating illegally, mainly to France and the US. In addition, the other revolutionary Armed Forces Movement MFA 's goals were not in the strict interest of the people of Portugal or its colonies, since the movement was initiated not only as an attempt to liberate Portugal from the authoritarian Estado Novo regime, but as an attempt of rebellion against the new Military Laws that were to be presented next year.

The Revolution and the whole movement were also a way to work against Laws that would reduce military costs and would reformulate the whole Portuguese Military Branch Decree Law: Decretos-Leis n.

Younger military academy graduates resented a program introduced by Marcello Caetano whereby militia officers who completed a brief training program and had served in the colonies' defensive campaigns, could be commissioned at the same rank as military academy graduates. As the war in the colonies was becoming increasingly unpopular in Portugal itself with the people becoming weary of war and balking at its ever-rising expense, the military insurgents took advantage of it and got some momentum.

Many ethnic Portuguese of the African colonies were also increasingly willing to accept independence if their economic status could be preserved [ citation needed ]. The new government in Lisbon was disinclined to prop up Portugal's convulsing and by now very expensive empire.

All the Portuguese territories in Africa were rapidly granted their independence.